This article is applicable to MySQL 8.0, which is the successor of MySQL 5.7, where 5 was dropped?!

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Introduction to Relational Database and SQL

Relational Databases

A relational database organizes data in tables. A table has rows (or records) and columns (or fields). Tables are related based on common columns to eliminate data redundancy and ensure data integrity.

Popular Relationship Database Management System (RDBMS) includes:

• the commercial Oracle, IBM DB2, Microsoft SQL Server and Access, SAP Hana.
• the open-source MySQL, PostgreSQL, mariaDB, Embedded Apache Derby (Java DB), mSQL (mini-SQL), SQLite, Apache OpenOffice's Base, and mongoDB (non-relational).

Structure Query Language (SQL)

A high-level programming language, called Structure Query Language (SQL), is designed for interacting with the relational databases. SQL defines a set of commands, such as SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, CREATE TABLE, DROP TABLE, and etc.

Edgar F. Codd of IBM proposed the Relational Database Model in 1970. SQL, one of the earlier programming language, was subsequently developed by Donald D. Chamberlin and Raymond F. Boyce at IBM in the early 1970s. Oracle, subsequently, took it to a new height.

ANSI (American National Standard Institute) established the first SQL standard in 1986 (SQL-86 or SQL-87) - adopted by ISO/IEC as 'ISO/IEC 9075' - followed in 1989 (SQL-89), 1992 (SQL-92 or SQL2), 1999 (SQL-99 or SQL3), 2003 (SQL:2003), 2006 (SQL:2006), 2011 (SQL:2011) and 2016 (SQL:2016). However, most of the database vendors have their own directs, e.g., PL/SQL (Oracle), Transact-SQL (Microsoft, SAP), PL/pgSQL (PostgreSQL).

SQL By Examples

A relational database system organizes data in the following hierarchy:

Mac Start Mariadb System

1. A relational database system contains many databases.
2. A database comprises tables.
3. A table have rows (or records) and columns (or fields).

Suppose we have a database called studentdb, a table called class101 in the database with 3 columns (id, name, gpa) and 4 rows as illustrated below. Each column has a data type. We choose: INT (integer) for column id, VARCHAR(50) (variable-length string of up to 50 characters) for name, and FLOAT (floating-point number) for gpa.

SQL (Structure Query Language) defines a set of intuitive commands (such as SELECT, INSERT, DELETE, UPDATE) to interact with relational database system.

SELECT

DELETE

INSERT

UPDATE

CREATE TABLE

DROP TABLE

Notes:

1. Case Sensitivity: SQL keywords, names (identifiers), strings may or may not be case-sensitive, depending on the implementation.
   • In MySQL, the keywords are NOT case-sensitive. For clarity, I show the keywords in UPPERCASE in this article.
   • For programmers, it is BEST to treat the names (identifiers) and strings as case-sensitive.
     (In MySQL, column-names are always case insensitive; but table-names are case-sensitive in Unix, but case-insensitive in Windows (confused!!). Case-sensitivity in string comparison depends on the collating sequence used (?!).)
2. String: SQL strings are enclosed in single quotes. But most implementations (such as MySQL) accept both single and double quotes.

Introduction to MySQL Relational Database Management System (RDBMS)

SQL is a programming language for interacting with relational databases. On the other hand, MySQL is a software - a Relational Database Management System.

MySQL is one of the most used, industrial-strength, open-source and free Relational Database Management System (RDBMS). MySQL was developed by Michael 'Monty' Widenius and David Axmark in 1995. It was owned by a Swedish company called MySQL AB, which was bought over by Sun Microsystems in 2008. Sun Microsystems was acquired by Oracle in 2010.

MySQL is successful, not only because it is free and open-source (there are many free and open-source databases, such as PostgreSQL, Apache Derby (Java DB), mSQL (mini SQL), SQLite and Apache OpenOffice's Base), but also for its speed, ease of use, reliability, performance, connectivity (full networking support), portability (run on most OSes, such as Unix, Windows, macOS), security (SSL support), small size, and rich features. MySQL supports all features expected in a high-performance relational database, such as transactions, foreign key, replication, subqueries, stored procedures, views and triggers.

MySQL is often deployed in a LAMP (Linux-Apache-MySQL-PHP), WAMP (Windows-Apache-MySQL-PHP), or MAMP (macOS-Apache-MySQL-PHP) environment. All components in LAMP is free and open-source, inclusive of the Operating System.

The mother site for MySQL is https://www.mysql.com. The ultimate reference for MySQL is the 'MySQL Reference Manual', available at https://dev.mysql.com/doc. The reference manual is huge - the PDF has over 3700 pages!!!

MySQL operates as a client-server system over TCP/IP network. The server runs on a machine with an IP address on a chosen TCP port number. The default TCP port number for MySQL is 3306. Users can access the server via a client program, connecting to the server at the given IP address and TCP port number.

Mac Start Mariadb Vs

MariaDB

Extracted from Wiki: MariaDB is a community-developed, commercially supported fork of the MySQL relational database management system (RDBMS), intended to remain free and open-source software under the GNU General Public License. Development is led by some of the original developers of MySQL, who forked it due to concerns over its acquisition by Oracle Corporation in 2009.

How to Install MySQL 8.0 and Get Started with SQL Programming

I want you to install MySQL on your own machine, because I want you to learn how to install, customize and operate complex industrial software system. Installation could be the hardest part in this exercise.

Step 0: Create a directory to keep all your works

IMPORTANT: Before getting started, check that you have a few GBs of Free Spaces.

Create a directory to keep all your works called:

• (For Windows) 'c:myWebProject'.
• (For macOS/Linux) '~/myWebProject' where '~' denotes your home directory.

Use your graphical interface, e.g., File Explorer (Windows), or Finder (macOS) to verify this directory. (Of course you can use your graphical interface to create this directory!)

For novices: It is important to follow this step. Otherwise, you will be out-of-sync with this article and will not be able to find your files later.

Step 1: Download and Install MySQL

For Windows

1. Download MySQL Community Server 'ZIP ARCHIVE' from https://dev.mysql.com/downloads/mysql/:
   1. Under 'General Availability (GA) Releases' tab.
   2. Under 'MySQL Community Server 8.0.{xx}', where {xx} is the latest update number ⇒ In 'Select Operating System', choose 'Microsoft Windows'.
   3. Under 'Other Downloads', download 'Windows (x86, 64-bit), ZIP ARCHIVE (193MB) (mysql-8.0.{xx}-winx64.zip)'.
   4. Under 'MySQL Community Downloads', there is NO need to 'Login' or 'Sign up' - Just click 'No thanks, just start my downloads!'.
2. UNZIP the downloaded file into your project directory 'C:myWebProject'. MySQL will be unzipped as 'c:myWebProjectmysql-8.0.{xx}-winx64'. (Right click on the file ⇒ Extract All ⇒ Choose the destination folder as 'c:myWebProject'.)
   For EASE OF USE, we shall shorten and rename the directory to 'c:myWebProjectmysql'. Take note and remember your MySQL installed directory!!!
3. (NEW since MySQL 5.7.7) Initialize the database: Start a CMD (as administrator) ('Search' button ⇒ Enter 'cmd' ⇒ Right-Click on 'Command Prompt' ⇒ Run as Administrator) and issue these commands: During the installation, a superuser called root is created with a temporary password, as shown above. TAKE NOTE of the PASSWORD, COPY and SAVE it somewhere, and also TAKE A PICTURE!!!
   NOTE: If error 'VCRUNTIME140_1.dll was not found' occurs, check HERE.
4. If you make a mistake or forgot your password, DELETE the entire MySQL directory 'C:myWebProjectmysql', and REPEAT step 2 and 3.

For macOS

Notes: The latest version of MySQL (8.0.23) works with macOS Catalina (10.15) and Big Slur (11). If you are running older version of macOS, you may need to find an archived version of MySQL @ https://dev.mysql.com/downloads/ ⇒ Archive.

1. Download the MySQL Community Server 'DMG Archive' from https://dev.mysql.com/downloads/mysql/:
   1. Under 'General Availability (GA) Releases' tab.
   2. Under 'MySQL Community Server 8.0.{xx}', where {xx} is the latest update number ⇒ In 'Select Operating System', choose the 'macOS'.
   3. Select the appropriate 'macOS 10.15 (x86, 64-bit) DMG Archive' for macOS 10.15 or 11 (mysql-8.0.{xx}-macos10.15-x86_64.dmg).
      • To check your OS version ⇒ Click the 'Apple' logo ⇒ 'About this Mac'.
      • To check whether your macOS is 32-bit or 64-bit ⇒ Read http://support.apple.com/kb/ht3696. Unless you have a dinosaur-era machine, it should be 64-bit!
   4. There is NO need to 'Login' or 'Sign up' - Just click 'No thanks, just start my download'.
2. To install MySQL (See https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/8.0/en/osx-installation-pkg.html for screen shots):
   1. Go to 'Downloads' ⇒ Double-click '.dmg' file downloaded.
   2. Double-click the 'mysql-8.0.{xx}-osx-10.{xx}-x86_64.pkg'.
   3. In 'Introduction', click 'Continue'.
   4. In 'License', choose 'Agree'.
   5. In 'Installation Type', click 'Install'.
   6. In 'Configuration', choose 'Use Strong Password Encryption', and enter a password for the 'root' user. Make sure you remember your password.
   7. MySQL will be installed in '/usr/local/mysql'. Take note of this installed directory!!
   8. Eject the '.dmg' file.
3. If you make a mistake or forgot your password, stop the server (Click 'Apple' Icon ⇒ System Preferences ⇒ MySQL ⇒ Stop).
   Goto /usr/local (via Finder ⇒ Go ⇒ GoTo Folder ⇒ type /usr/local) and remove all the folders beginning with 'mysql...', e.g., 'mysql-8.0.{xx}...' and 'mysql', and Re-run Step 2.

For Ubuntu

Refer to 'How to install MySQL on Ubuntu'.

I shall assume that MySQL is installed in directory 'c:myWebProjectmysql' (for Windows) or '/usr/local/mysql' (for macOS). But you need to TAKE NOTE OF YOUR MySQL INSTALLED DIRECTORY. Hereafter, I shall denote the MySQL installed directory as <MYSQL_HOME> in this article.

Step 3: Start the 'Server'

The MySQL is a client-server system. The database is run as a server application. Users access the database server via a client program, locally or remotely thru the network, as illustrated:

1. The server program is called 'mysqld' (with a suffix 'd', which stands for daemon - a daemon is a non-interactive process running in the background).
2. The client program is called 'mysql' (without the 'd').

The programs mysqld and mysql are kept in the 'bin' sub-directory of the MySQL installed directory.

Startup Server

For Windows

To start the database server, launch a new CMD shell:

Note: The --console option directs the output messages to the console. Without this option, you will see a blank screen.

For macOS

The EASY WAY: Via graphical control. Click 'Apple' Icon ⇒ System Preferences ⇒ MySQL ⇒ Start or Stop.

The MySQL database server is now started, and ready to handle clients' requests.

Anything that can possibly go wrong, does! Read 'How to Debug'.

Shutdown Server

For Windows

The quickest way to shut down the database server is to press Ctrl-C to initiate a normal shutdown. DO NOT KILL the server via the window's CLOSE button.

Observe these messages from the MySQL server console:

For macOS

The EASY WAY: Via the graphical control. Click 'Apple' Icon ⇒ System Preferences ⇒ MySQL ⇒ Stop.

WARNING: You should properly shutdown the MySQL server. Otherwise, you might corrupt the database and might have problems restarting it. BUT, if you encounter problem shutting down the server normally, you may kill the 'mysqld' process in Task Manager (for Windows); or Activity Monitor (for macOS); or System Monitor (for Ubuntu).

Step 4: Start a 'Client'

Recall that the MySQL is a client-server system. Once the server is started, one or more clients can be connected to the database server. A client could be run on the same machine (local client); or from another machine over the network (remote client).

To login to the MySQL server, you need to provide a username and password. During the installation, MySQL creates a superuser called 'root' with a temporary password. I hope that you have taken note of this password! (Otherwise, re-install!)

The MySQL installation provides a command-line client program called 'mysql'. (Recall that the server program is called 'mysqld' with a suffix 'd'; the client program does not have the suffix 'd').

Let's start a command-line client with the superuser 'root'.

First, make sure that the server is running. See previous step to re-start the server if it has been shutdown.

For Windows

Start Another NEW CMD shell to run the client (You need to keep the CMD that run the server):

For macOS

Open a NEW 'Terminal' and issue these commands to start a MySQL client with superuser root:

(Skip Unless...) Read 'How to Debug'.

Step 5: Change the Password for the Superuser 'root'

As mentioned earlier, the MySQL installation creates a superuser called 'root' with a temporary random password. 'root' is a privileged user that can do anything, including deleting all the databases. You are required to change the root's password immediately after logging in.

Notes: If you get stuck entering a command, press Ctrl-C to abort the current command.

Changing the Password for 'root'

Let's continue with our client session started earlier.

Re-Start a Client as 'root' with the New Password

We have just changed the password for root and exited the client. Start a client and login as root again. Enter the password when prompted.

For macOS

Step 6: Create a New User

The superuser 'root' is privileged, which is meant for database administration and is not meant for operational. We shall create a new user - let's call it 'myuser' - with a lesser privilege. To create a new user, start a client with superuser 'root':

Explanation

• CREATE USER 'myuser'@'localhost' IDENTIFIED BY 'xxxx'
  We use the command 'create user' to create a new user called 'myuser'@'localhost', who can login to the server locally from the same machine (but not remotely from another machine), with password 'xxxx'.
• GRANT ALL ON *.* TO 'myuser'@'localhost'
  The newly created user has NO privilege to perform any database operation including select. We use the 'grant' command to grant 'all' the privileges (including select, insert, delete, and so on) to this new user on ALL the databases and ALL the tables ('on *.*'). This new user, in practice, has the same privilege as root, except that it cannot issue grant command. For production, you should grant only the necessary privileges on selected databases and selected tables, e.g., 'grant select, insert, update on studentdb.*' - it can issue select, insert and update (but no delete, create/drop table) on ALL the tables of the database studentdb only.

Step 7: Create a new Database, a new Table in the Database, Insert Records, Query and Update

Recall that the MySQL server organizes data in the following hierarchy:

1. A system contains many databases.
2. A database contains many tables.
3. A table contains rows (records) and columns (fields).

Let's create a database called 'studentdb', and a table called 'class101' in the database. The table shall have three columns: id (of the type INT - integer), name (of the type VARCHAR(50) - variable-length string of up to 50 characters), gpa (of the type FLOAT - floating-point number).

CAUTION: Programmers don't use blank and special characters in NAMES (database names, table names, column names). It is either not supported, or will pose you many more challenges.

Tips on Client's Session

Before we proceed, here are some tips on using the client:

• You need to terminate your command with a semicolon (;), which sends the command to the server for processing. E.g.,
• A command can span several lines. The prompt for subsequent lines changes to -> to denote continuation. You need to terminate the command with a semicolon (;). E.g., In other words, if you forget to type ';', you can type the ';' on the next line.
• You can use c to cancel (abort) the current command. E.g.,
• If you open a single/double quote, without closing it, the continuation prompt changes to '> or '> (instead of ->). For example,
• You can also press Ctrl-C to abort the current command.
• You can use up/down arrow keys to retrieve the previous/next commands, from the 'command history'.
• (For Windows 10) You should enable Copy/Paste functions of CMD shell. To enable Copy/Paste, click the CMD's icon ⇒ Properties ⇒ Options ⇒ Edit Options ⇒ Check 'Enable Ctrl key shortcuts'. You can then use Ctrl-C/Ctrl-V for Copy/Paste.

SQL Programming

Let's start a client with our newly-created user 'myuser'.

Exercises:

1. Select records with names starting with letter 'K'. (Hints: name like 'K%', see Section 'SQL by Examples')
2. Select records with names NOT starting with letter 'K'. (Hints: name NOT like ...)
3. Select records with gpa between 4.35 and 4.65. (Hints: test-1 AND test-2)
4. Select records with names having a letter 'e'. (Hints: name like '%e%')
5. Select records with names having a letter 'e' or 'a'. (Hints: test-1 OR test-2)
6. Select records with names having a letter 'e' and gpa ≥ 4.5.

(Skip Unless... ) Read 'How to Debug'.

More Exercises

1. Show all the databases.
2. Create a new database called 'ABCTrading'.
3. Set the 'ABCTrading' database as the default database.
4. Show all the tables in the default database.
5. Create a new table called 'products' with the columns and type indicated below.
6. Show the table description.
7. Insert the above records and list all the records.
8. List records with name containing 'Pencil'.
9. List records with price ≥ 1.0.
10. Increase the price of all items by 10%, and list all the records.
11. Remove 'Pen Red' from the table, and list all the records.

Many-to-many Relationship

In a bookstore, a book is written by one or more authors; an author may write zero or more books. This is known as a many-to-many relationship. It is IMPOSSIBLE to capture many-to-many relationship in a SINGLE table (or one spreadsheet) with a fixed number of columns, without duplicating any piece of information! For example, if you organize the data in the table below, you will not know how many author columns to be used; and you need to repeat all the data for repeating authors.

The many-to-many relationship between books and authors can be modeled with 3 tables, as shown below. A books table contains data about books (such as title and price); an authors table contains data about the authors (such as name and email). A table called books_authors joins the books and authors tables and captures the many-to-many relationship between books and authors.

Exercises

1. Create a database called 'mybookstore'.
2. Use 'mybookstore' as the default database.
3. Create 3 tables 'books', 'authors', and 'books_authors' in the database 'mybookstore', with column names and types as shown in the database diagram.
4. Insert the respective records into the tables, and list the contents of each of the tables.
5. Try this query and explain the output:
6. Try this query and observe how the tables are joined:
7. List all the books (title, price, qty) by 'Tan Ah Teck' with price less than 20.
8. List all the authors (name and email) for the book title 'Java for Dummies'.
9. List all the books (title, price, qty) and all the authors (name and email) for books with title beginning with 'Java' (Hints: title LIKE 'Java%').

(Optional) Backup and Restore Databases

Backup via 'mysqldump' Utility Program

You can use the 'mysqldump' utility program to back up (i) the entire server (all databases), (ii) selected databases, or (ii) selected tables of a database. The 'mysqldump' program generates a SQL script that can later be executed to re-create the databases, tables and their rows.

For example, the following command backups the entire 'studentdb' database to a SQL script called 'backup_studentdb.sql'.

For macOS

Study the output file, which contains CREATE DATABASE, CREATE TABLE and INSERT statements to re-create the database and tables dumped earlier.

Restore via 'source' command in a mysql client

You can restore from the backup by running the 'source' command in a MySQL client. For example, to restore the studentdb backup earlier:

For macOS

Summary of Frequently-Used Commands

(For Windows) Starting MySQL Server and Client

(For macOS) Starting MySQL Server and Client

Frequently-used MySQL Commands

MySQL commands are NOT case sensitive.

(Skip Unless...) How to Debug?

'Everything that can possibly go wrong will go wrong.' The most important thing to do is to find the ERROR MESSAGES!!!

'VCRUNTIME140_1.dll was not found' when Running the Initialization for Windows

Start Mariadb Mac Homebrew

CAUSE: You do not have the required 'Microsoft Visual C++ redistributable runtime'.

SOLUTION: Goto 'The latest supported Visual C++ downloads' @ https://support.microsoft.com/en-gb/help/2977003/the-latest-supported-visual-c-downloads ⇒ Download 'x64: vc_redist.x64.exe' ⇒ run the executable to install 'Microsoft Visual C++ 2015-2019 redistributable (x64)' ⇒ Restart your computer ⇒ You can find 'vcruntime140_1.dll' under 'C:WindowsSystem32'.

Cannot Start the MySQL Server after Installation

First of all, check if you have already started an instance of MySQL Server:

• For Windows, start the 'Task Manager', select 'Processes' and look for 'mysqld' processes. 'End' all the 'mysqld' processes.
• For macOS, start the 'Activity Monitor', select 'All Processes' and look for 'mysqld' processes. 'Kill' all the 'mysqld' processes.
• For Ubuntu, start the 'System Monitor' and look for 'mysqld' processes. 'Kill' all the 'mysqld' processes.

'Permission Denied' in creating temp files under macOS

No more disk space?!

Cannot Start the 'mysql' Client

Error Using the 'mysql' Client

Link to MySQL References & Resources

Install SQL Server directly to your Mac — no virtual machine required!

Microsoft has made SQL Server available for macOS and Linux systems. This is made possible by running SQL Server from a Docker container. Therefore, there's no need to install a virtual machine with Windows (which was the only way to run SQL Server on a Mac prior to SQL Server 2017).

Install and Configure Docker

This is a prerequisite for installing SQL Server on your Mac. Because the Mac runs SQL Server inside a Docker container, the first thing we need to do is download and install Docker (unless it's already installed). Once installed, we'll increase its memory allocation to a more suitable level for running SQL Server.

1. Download Docker from the download page, extract it, and drag it into your Application folder.
2. Launch Docker, and go to Preferences > Advanced and increase its memory allocation to 4GB

If I've confused you, don't worry. I've written a tutorial with screenshots: Install Docker on a Mac and Configure for SQL Server.

OK, we're now ready to install SQL Server on your Mac.

Now the Actual SQL Server Installation

Now that we've installed Docker and increased its memory allocation, we can go ahead and install SQL Server. The Mac uses the Linux image (the SQL Server for Linux Docker image).

1. Pull the SQL Server Image

   Open a Terminal window and run the following command:*

   This pulls the latest SQL Server for Linux Docker image to your computer.

   * The exact command will depend on which release you download. Also, since I wrote this article, Docker has moved the repository for SQL Server. You might need to use docker pull mcr.microsoft.com/mssql/server:2017-latest-ubuntu to download SQL Server 2017.

   Also, SQL Server 2019 Preview has been available since late 2018. As of late 2019 you can download it at docker pull mcr.microsoft.com/mssql/server:2019-CTP3.2-ubuntu.

   For the latest image, see the official Microsoft repository on the Docker website.

2. Launch the SQL Server Image

   Run the following command to launch an instance of the Docker image you just downloaded:

   docker run -d --name Homer -e 'ACCEPT_EULA=Y' -e 'SA_PASSWORD=myPassw0rd' -p 1433:1433 microsoft/mssql-server-linux

   Replace the container name and password with your own. Also be sure to make a strong password, or you may get an error (see below).

   Also, if you downloaded a different container image, replace microsoft/mssql-server-linux with your container image.

   Here's an explanation of the above parameters:

   -d

   This is an optional parameter that launches the Docker container in daemon mode. This means that it runs in the background and doesn't need its own Terminal window open. You can omit this parameter to have the container run in its own Terminal window.

   --name Homer

   This optional parameter provides a name for the container. This can be handy when stopping and starting the container from the Terminal.

   -e 'ACCEPT_EULA=Y'

   The Y shows that you agree with the EULA (End User Licence Agreement). This is required in order to install SQL Server.

   -e 'SA_PASSWORD=myPassw0rd'

   Required parameter that sets the sa database password.

   -p 1433:1433

   This maps the local port 1433 to port 1433 on the container. This is the default TCP port that SQL Server uses to listen for connections.

   microsoft/mssql-server-linux

   This tells Docker which image to use. If you downloaded a different one, use that instead.

   Password Strength

   If you get the following error at this step, try again, but with a stronger password.

   Microsoft(R) SQL Server(R) setup failed with error code 1. Please check the setup log in /var/opt/mssql/log for more information.

3. Check the Docker container (optional)

   Type the following command to check that the Docker container is running.

   If it's up and running, it should return something like this:

   Show All Containers

   The above command only shows those containers that are currently running. To show all containers (whether they're running or not), append the -a flag to the command (you can also use -all):

   docker ps -a OR docker ps -all

Check your Installation & Manage SQL Server

Now that you've installed SQL Server on your Mac, you'll probably want to check that you can access it and query it, etc. Then you'll probably want to start creating databases and doing other DB-related tasks. You'll need some sort of management tool for this.

Here are three options:

• sql-cli

  sql-cli is a cross platform command line tool for SQL Server. This means you can create databases and query them right from your Mac's Terminal window.

  Installation is as easy as running a single command (assuming you already have NodeJs installed).

• Azure Data Studio

  Azure Data Studio (formerly called SQL Operations Studio) is a free GUI tool from Microsoft. It's a bit more user friendly for those who aren't comfortable with the command line interface.

  Installation is as easy as downloading it and dragging it to your Applications folder.

• DBeaver

  Another GUI option is DBeaver. DBeaver is a free open source database tool that works with many different database management systems (MySQL, PostgreSQL, MariaDB, SQLite, Oracle, DB2, SQL Server, Sybase, MS Access, Teradata, Firebird, Derby, etc).

  You have a few options for installing DBeaver. The easiest way is to download the 'installer option', and then run the installation wizard.